# Evidence Canon

The research traditions and key studies that ground this skill library. Organised by domain.

---

## Memory & Learning Science

### Retrieval Practice
- Roediger, H. L., & Butler, A. C. (2011). The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. *Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15*(1), 20–27.
- Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. L. (2008). The critical importance of retrieval for learning. *Science, 319*(5865), 966–968.
- Rowland, C. A. (2014). The effect of testing versus restudy on retention: A meta-analytic review of the testing effect. *Psychological Bulletin, 140*(6), 1432–1463.
- Agarwal, P. K., & Bain, P. M. (2019). *Powerful Teaching: Unleash the Science of Learning.* Jossey-Bass.

### Spaced Practice & Forgetting
- Ebbinghaus, H. (1885/1913). *Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology.* Teachers College, Columbia University.
- Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. *Psychological Bulletin, 132*(3), 354–380.
- Kornell, N., & Bjork, R. A. (2008). Learning concepts and categories: Is spacing the "enemy of induction"? *Psychological Science, 19*(6), 585–592.

### Interleaving & Desirable Difficulties
- Bjork, R. A. (1994). Memory and metamemory considerations in the training of human beings. In J. Metcalfe & A. Shimamura (Eds.), *Metacognition: Knowing about knowing* (pp. 185–205). MIT Press.
- Kornell, N., & Bjork, R. A. (2008). Learning concepts and categories: Is spacing the "enemy of induction"? *Psychological Science, 19*(6), 585–592.
- Rohrer, D., Dedrick, R. F., & Stershic, S. (2015). Interleaved practice improves mathematics learning. *Journal of Educational Psychology, 107*(3), 900–908.
- Taylor, K., & Rohrer, D. (2010). The effects of interleaved practice. *Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24*(6), 837–848.

### Cognitive Load Theory
- Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. *Cognitive Science, 12*(2), 257–285.
- Sweller, J. (1994). Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design. *Learning and Instruction, 4*(4), 295–312.
- Paas, F., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (1994). Instructional control of cognitive load in the training of complex cognitive tasks. *Educational Psychology Review, 6*(4), 351–371.
- Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (2019). Cognitive architecture and instructional design: 20 years later. *Educational Psychology Review, 31*(2), 261–292.

### Worked Examples
- Sweller, J., & Cooper, G. A. (1985). The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra. *Cognition and Instruction, 2*(1), 59–89.
- Atkinson, R. K., Derry, S. J., Renkl, A., & Wortham, D. (2000). Learning from examples: Instructional principles from the worked examples research. *Review of Educational Research, 70*(2), 181–214.
- Renkl, A. (2014). Toward an instructionally oriented theory of example-based learning. *Cognitive Science, 38*(1), 1–37.

### Elaborative Interrogation
- Pressley, M., Wood, E., Woloshyn, V. E., Martin, V., King, A., & Menke, D. (1992). Encouraging mindful use of prior knowledge: Attempting to construct explanatory answers facilitates learning. *Educational Psychologist, 27*(1), 91–109.
- Woloshyn, V. E., Pressley, M., & Schneider, W. (1994). Elaborative-interrogation and prior-knowledge effects on learning of facts. *Journal of Educational Psychology, 84*(1), 79–89.
- Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students' learning with effective learning techniques. *Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14*(1), 4–58.

### Feedback
- Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. *Review of Educational Research, 77*(1), 81–112.
- Shute, V. J. (2008). Focus on formative feedback. *Review of Educational Research, 78*(1), 153–189.
- Wisniewski, B., Zierer, K., & Hattie, J. (2020). The power of feedback revisited: A meta-analysis of educational feedback research. *Frontiers in Psychology, 10*, 3087.

### Dual Coding
- Paivio, A. (1986). *Mental Representations: A Dual Coding Approach.* Oxford University Press.
- Clark, J. M., & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. *Educational Psychology Review, 3*(3), 149–210.
- Mayer, R. E. (2009). *Multimedia Learning* (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.

---

## Self-Regulated Learning & Metacognition

- Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), *Handbook of Self-Regulation* (pp. 13–39). Academic Press.
- Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. *Theory into Practice, 41*(2), 64–70.
- Pintrich, P. R. (2000). The role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), *Handbook of Self-Regulation* (pp. 451–502). Academic Press.
- Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. *American Psychologist, 34*(10), 906–911.
- Veenman, M. V. J., Van Hout-Wolters, B. H. A. M., & Afflerbach, P. (2006). Metacognition and learning: Conceptual and methodological considerations. *Metacognition and Learning, 1*(1), 3–14.
- Dunlosky, J., et al. (2013). Improving students' learning with effective learning techniques. *Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14*(1), 4–58.

---

## Explicit & Direct Instruction

- Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of instruction: Research-based strategies that all teachers should know. *American Educator, 36*(1), 12–19, 39.
- Pearson, P. D., & Gallagher, M. C. (1983). The instruction of reading comprehension. *Contemporary Educational Psychology, 8*(3), 317–344.
- Engelmann, S., & Carnine, D. (1982). *Theory of Instruction: Principles and Applications.* Irvington.
- Hattie, J. (2009). *Visible Learning.* Routledge.

---

## Questioning, Discussion & Dialogue

- Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2008). *Critical Thinking: Tools for Taking Charge of Your Learning and Your Life* (3rd ed.). Pearson.
- Mercer, N. (2000). *Words and Minds: How We Use Language to Think Together.* Routledge.
- Alexander, R. (2008). *Towards Dialogic Teaching: Rethinking Classroom Talk* (4th ed.). Dialogos.
- Michaels, S., O'Connor, C., & Resnick, L. B. (2008). Deliberative discourse idealized and realized: Accountable talk in the classroom and in civic life. *Studies in Philosophy and Education, 27*(4), 283–297.
- Resnick, L. B., Asterhan, C. S. C., & Clarke, S. N. (2015). *Socializing Intelligence Through Academic Talk and Dialogue.* AERA.
- Wiliam, D. (2011). *Embedded Formative Assessment.* Solution Tree.
- Christodoulou, D. (2017). *Making Good Progress? The Future of Assessment for Learning.* Oxford University Press.

---

## Literacy, Writing & Critical Thinking

- Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing Next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high schools. *Carnegie Corporation of New York.*
- Duke, N. K., & Pearson, P. D. (2002). Effective practices for developing reading comprehension. In A. E. Farstrup & S. J. Samuels (Eds.), *What Research Has to Say About Reading Instruction* (3rd ed., pp. 205–242). International Reading Association.
- Pressley, M., et al. (2002). *Reading Instruction That Works: The Case for Balanced Teaching* (2nd ed.). Guilford.
- Wineburg, S., & McGrew, S. (2017). Lateral reading: Reading less and learning more when evaluating digital information. *Stanford History Education Group Working Paper.*
- Toulmin, S. (1958). *The Uses of Argument.* Cambridge University Press.
- Halliday, M. A. K. (1993). Towards a language-based theory of learning. *Linguistics and Education, 5*(2), 93–116.
- Hobbs, R. (2010). *Digital and Media Literacy: A Plan of Action.* Aspen Institute.
- Facione, P. A. (1990). *Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes of Educational Assessment and Instruction (Delphi Report).* California Academic Press.

---

## EAL/D & Language Development

- Cummins, J. (1981). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. In California State Department of Education (Ed.), *Schooling and Language Minority Students: A Theoretical Framework.*
- Cummins, J. (2000). *Language, Power and Pedagogy: Bilingual Children in the Crossfire.* Multilingual Matters.
- Gibbons, P. (2002). *Scaffolding Language, Scaffolding Learning.* Heinemann.
- Gibbons, P. (2015). *Scaffolding Language, Scaffolding Learning* (2nd ed.). Heinemann.
- Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2002). *Bringing Words to Life: Robust Vocabulary Instruction.* Guilford.
- Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2013). *Bringing Words to Life* (2nd ed.). Guilford.
- Echevarría, J., Vogt, M. E., & Short, D. J. (2008). *Making Content Comprehensible for English Learners: The SIOP Model* (3rd ed.). Pearson.
- Zwiers, J. (2014). *Building Academic Language: Meeting Common Core Standards Across Disciplines* (2nd ed.). Jossey-Bass.

---

## Curriculum Design & Assessment

- Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (1998). *Understanding by Design.* ASCD.
- Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). *Understanding by Design* (2nd ed.). ASCD.
- Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. *Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 5*(1), 7–74.
- Wiliam, D. (2011). *Embedded Formative Assessment.* Solution Tree.
- Brookhart, S. M. (2013). *How to Create and Use Rubrics for Formative Assessment and Grading.* ASCD.
- Andrade, H. G. (2000). Using rubrics to promote thinking and learning. *Educational Leadership, 57*(5), 13–18.
- Marzano, R. J., & Kendall, J. S. (2007). *The New Taxonomy of Educational Objectives* (2nd ed.). Corwin.
- Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). *How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms* (2nd ed.). ASCD.
- Rose, D. H., & Meyer, A. (2002). *Teaching Every Student in the Digital Age: Universal Design for Learning.* ASCD.
- Heritage, M. (2008). Learning progressions: Supporting instruction and formative assessment. *CRESST/UCLA.*
- Popham, W. J. (2007). The lowdown on learning progressions. *Educational Leadership, 64*(7), 83–84.

---

## Wellbeing, Motivation & Student Agency

- Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). *Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior.* Plenum.
- Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. *Psychological Inquiry, 11*(4), 227–268.
- Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. *Psychological Review, 84*(2), 191–215.
- Bandura, A. (1997). *Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control.* Freeman.
- Hattie, J. (2009). *Visible Learning.* Routledge.
- Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. *American Psychologist, 56*(3), 218–226.
- Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2011). A brief social-belonging intervention improves academic and health outcomes of minority students. *Science, 331*(6023), 1447–1451.
- Yeager, D. S., & Walton, G. M. (2011). Social-psychological interventions in education: They're not magic. *Review of Educational Research, 81*(2), 267–301.
- Roffey, S. (2012). Pupil wellbeing — teacher wellbeing: Two sides of the same coin? *Educational & Child Psychology, 29*(4), 8–17.
- Zimmerman, B. J., & Bandura, A. (1994). Impact of self-regulatory influences on writing course attainment. *American Educational Research Journal, 31*(4), 845–862.

---

## Professional Learning & Teacher Development

- Timperley, H., Wilson, A., Barrar, H., & Fung, I. (2007). *Teacher Professional Learning and Development: Best Evidence Synthesis Iteration.* Ministry of Education, New Zealand.
- Timperley, H. (2011). *Realizing the Power of Professional Learning.* Open University Press.
- Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). *The Flat World and Education: How America's Commitment to Equity Will Determine Our Future.* Teachers College Press.
- Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E., & Gardner, M. (2017). *Effective Teacher Professional Development.* Learning Policy Institute.
- Schön, D. A. (1983). *The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action.* Basic Books.

---

*This is a living document. Sources are added as skills are built and reviewed.*
